中山諸語の一言語についての創作 文法篇 補
- 中山諸語の一言語についての創作 文法篇 補
- 表
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Fusion of Selected Inflectional Formatives
- Exponence of Selected Inflectional Formatives
- Inflectional Synthesis of the Verb
- Locus of Marking in the Clause
- Locus of Marking in Possessive Noun Phrases
- Locus of Marking: Whole-language Typology
- Prefixing vs. Suffixing in Inflectional Morphology
- Reduplication
- Case Syncretism
- Syncretism in Verbal Person/Number Marking
- Nominal Categories
- Number of Genders
- Sex-based and Non-sex-based Gender Systems
- Systems of Gender Assignment
- Coding of Nominal Plurality
- Occurrence of Nominal Plurality
- Plurality in Independent Personal Pronouns
- The Associative Plural
- Definite Articles
- Indefinite Articles
- Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction in Independent Pronouns
- Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction in Verbal Inflection
- Distance Contrasts in Demonstratives
- Pronominal and Adnominal Demonstratives
- Third Person Pronouns and Demonstratives
表
WALSの各項目を並べてみたもの
| Japanese | Tagalog | Ainu | Chuzanese sp. | Feature | Area | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1A | Moderately small | Moderately small | Small | Consonant Inventories | Phonology | |
| 2A | Average (5-6) | Average (5-6) | Average (5-6) | Vowel Quality Inventories | Phonology | |
| 3A | Average | Average | Moderately low | Consonant-Vowel Ratio | Phonology | |
| 4A | In both plosives and fricatives | In plosives alone | No voicing contrast | Voicing in Plosives and Fricatives | Phonology | |
| 5A | None missing in /p t k b d g/ | None missing in /p t k b d g/ | Other | Voicing and Gaps in Plosive Systems | Phonology | |
| 6A | Uvular continuants only | None | None | Uvular Consonants | Phonology | |
| 7A | No glottalized consonants | No glottalized consonants | No glottalized consonants | Glottalized Consonants | Phonology | |
| 8A | No laterals | /l/, no obstruent laterals | No laterals | Lateral Consonants | Phonology | |
| 9A | No velar nasal | Initial velar nasal | No velar nasal | The Velar Nasal | Phonology | |
| 10A | Contrast absent | Contrast absent | Contrast absent | Vowel Nasalization | Phonology | |
| 11A | None | None | None | Front Rounded Vowels | Phonology | |
| 12A | Moderately complex | Moderately complex | Moderately complex | Syllable Structure | Phonology | |
| 13A | Simple tone system | No tones | Simple tone system | Tone | Phonology | |
| 14A | #N/A | Penultimate | #N/A | Fixed Stress Locations | Phonology | |
| 15A | #N/A | Fixed stress (no weight-sensitivity) | #N/A | Weight-Sensitive Stress | Phonology | |
| 16A | #N/A | Lexical stress | #N/A | Weight Factors in Weight-Sensitive Stress Systems | Phonology | |
| 17A | #N/A | Trochaic | #N/A | Rhythm Types | Phonology | |
| 18A | All present | All present | All present | Absence of Common Consonants | Phonology | |
| 19A | None | None | None | Presence of Uncommon Consonants | Phonology | |
| 20A | Exclusively concatenative | Exclusively concatenative | #N/A | Exclusively concatenative | Fusion of Selected Inflectional Formatives | Morphology |
| 21A | Monoexponential case | Case + referentiality | #N/A | Case + referentiality | Exponence of Selected Inflectional Formatives | Morphology |
| 21B | monoexponential TAM | monoexponential TAM | #N/A | monoexponential TAM | Exponence of Tense-Aspect-Mood Inflection | Morphology |
| 22A | 4-5 categories per word | 2-3 categories per word | 4-5 categories per word | 4-5 categories per word | Inflectional Synthesis of the Verb | Morphology |
| 23A | Dependent marking | Double marking | No marking | Double marking | Locus of Marking in the Clause | Morphology |
| 24A | Dependent marking | Other | Head marking | Double marking | Locus of Marking in Possessive Noun Phrases | Morphology |
| 25B | Non-zero marking | Non-zero marking | Non-zero marking | Non-zero marking | Zero Marking of A and P Arguments | Morphology |
| 25A | Dependent-marking | Inconsistent or other | Inconsistent or other | Inconsistent or other | Locus of Marking: Whole-language Typology | Morphology |
| 26A | Strongly suffixing | Little affixation | Equal prefixing and suffixing | Strongly suffixing | Prefixing vs. Suffixing in Inflectional Morphology | Morphology |
| 27A | Full reduplication only | Productive full and partial reduplication | Full reduplication only | Full reduplication only | Reduplication | Morphology |
| 28A | No case marking | No case marking | No case marking | No case marking | Case Syncretism | Morphology |
| 29A | No subject person/number marking | No subject person/number marking | Not syncretic | No subject person/number marking | Syncretism in Verbal Person/Number Marking | Morphology |
| 30A | #N/A | Two | None | None | Number of Genders | Nominal Categories |
| 31A | #N/A | Sex-based | No gender | No gender | Sex-based and Non-sex-based Gender Systems | Nominal Categories |
| 32A | #N/A | Semantic | No gender | No gender | Systems of Gender Assignment | Nominal Categories |
| 33A | Plural suffix | Plural word | Plural suffix | Plural suffix | Coding of Nominal Plurality | Nominal Categories |
| 34A | Only human nouns, optional | All nouns, always optional | All nouns, always optional | All nouns, always optional | Occurrence of Nominal Plurality | Nominal Categories |
| 35A | Person stem + nominal plural affix | Person-number stem | Person-number affixes | Plurality in Independent Personal Pronouns | Nominal Categories | |
| 36A | Associative same as additive plural | Unique periphrastic associative plural | Associative same as additive plural | Associative same as additive plural | The Associative Plural | Nominal Categories |
| 37A | No definite, but indefinite article | #N/A | #N/A | No definite, but indefinite article | Definite Articles | Nominal Categories |
| 38A | Indefinite word distinct from 'one' | #N/A | #N/A | Indefinite word distinct from 'one' | Indefinite Articles | Nominal Categories |
| 39A | No inclusive/exclusive | Inclusive/exclusive | Inclusive/exclusive | Inclusive/exclusive | Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction in Independent Pronouns | Nominal Categories |
| 40A | No person marking | No person marking | Inclusive/exclusive | No person marking | Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction in Verbal Inflection | Nominal Categories |
| 41A | Three-way contrast | Three-way contrast | Two-way contrast | Three-way contrast | Distance Contrasts in Demonstratives | Nominal Categories |
| 42A | Different inflection | Identical | Different stem | Pronominal and Adnominal Demonstratives | Nominal Categories | |
| 43A | Unrelated | Unrelated | Unrelated | Unrelated | Third Person Pronouns and Demonstratives | Nominal Categories |
| 44A | 3rd person only, but also non-singular | No gender distinctions | No gender distinctions | No gender distinctions | Gender Distinctions in Independent Personal Pronouns | Nominal Categories |
| 45A | Pronouns avoided for politeness | Multiple politeness distinctions | Binary politeness distinction | Binary politeness distinction | Politeness Distinctions in Pronouns | Nominal Categories |
| 46A | Interrogative-based | Existential construction | Interrogative-based | Interrogative-based | Indefinite Pronouns | Nominal Categories |
| 47A | Identical | Differentiated | #N/A | Intensifiers and Reflexive Pronouns | Nominal Categories | |
| 48A | No person marking | No adpositions | Pronouns only | Person Marking on Adpositions | Nominal Categories | |
| 49A | 8-9 cases | No morphological case-marking | Exclusively borderline case-marking | Number of Cases | Nominal Categories | |
| 50A | Symmetrical | Additive-quantitatively asymmetrical | Symmetrical | Symmetrical | Asymmetrical Case-Marking | Nominal Categories |
| 51A | Postpositional clitics | #N/A | No case affixes or adpositional clitics | Position of Case Affixes | Nominal Categories | |
| 52A | Differentiation | Differentiation | Differentiation | Differentiation | Comitatives and Instrumentals | Nominal Categories |
| 53A | One-th, two-th, three-th | First, two-th, three-th | None | First, two-th, three-th | Ordinal Numerals | Nominal Categories |
| 54A | Marked by suffix | Marked by mixed or other strategies | Marked by following word | Marked by mixed or other strategies | Distributive Numerals | Nominal Categories |
| 55A | Obligatory | Absent | Optional | Optional | Numeral Classifiers | Nominal Categories |
| 56A | Formally similar, with interrogative | Formally similar, with interrogative | Formally similar, with interrogative | Formally similar, with interrogative | Conjunctions and Universal Quantifiers | Nominal Categories |
| 57A | No possessive affixes | #N/A | Possessive prefixes | Position of Pronominal Possessive Affixes | Nominal Categories | |
| 58A | Absent | Absent | Absent | Absent | Obligatory Possessive Inflection | Nominal Syntax |
| 58B | None reported | None reported | None reported | None reported | Number of Possessive Nouns | Nominal Syntax |
| 59A | No possessive classification | No possessive classification | No possessive classification | No possessive classification | Possessive Classification | Nominal Syntax |
| 60A | Genitives and adjectives collapsed | Adjectives and relative clauses collapsed | Adjectives and relative clauses collapsed | Adjectives and relative clauses collapsed | Genitives, Adjectives and Relative Clauses | Nominal Syntax |
| 61A | Marked by mixed or other strategies | Without marking | #N/A | Adjectives without Nouns | Nominal Syntax | |
| 62A | Double-Possessive | Possessive-Accusative | #N/A | Action Nominal Constructions | Nominal Syntax | |
| 63A | 'And' identical to 'with' | 'And' different from 'with' | 'And' different from 'with' | 'And' different from 'with' | Noun Phrase Conjunction | Nominal Syntax |
| 64A | Differentiation | Identity | Differentiation | Differentiation | Nominal and Verbal Conjunction | Nominal Syntax |
| 65A | No grammatical marking | Grammatical marking | No grammatical marking | No grammatical marking | Perfective/Imperfective Aspect | Verbal Categories |
| 66A | Present, no remoteness distinctions | No past tense | No past tense | No past tense | The Past Tense | Verbal Categories |
| 67A | No inflectional future | Inflectional future exists | No inflectional future | No inflectional future | The Future Tense | Verbal Categories |
| 68A | No perfect | No perfect | No perfect | No perfect | The Perfect | Verbal Categories |
| 69A | Tense-aspect suffixes | Tense-aspect prefixes | Tense-aspect suffixes | Tense-aspect suffixes | Position of Tense-Aspect Affixes | Verbal Categories |
| 70A | Second person number-neutral | Second singular and second plural | Second person number-neutral | Second person number-neutral | The Morphological Imperative | Verbal Categories |
| 71A | Normal imperative + special negative | Normal imperative + special negative | Normal imperative + special negative | Normal imperative + special negative | The Prohibitive | Verbal Categories |
| 72A | Neither type of system | Neither type of system | Neither type of system | Neither type of system | Imperative-Hortative Systems | Verbal Categories |
| 73A | Inflectional optative absent | Inflectional optative present | Inflectional optative absent | Inflectional optative absent | The Optative | Verbal Categories |
| 74A | Affixes on verbs | Affixes on verbs | Verbal constructions | Affixes on verbs | Situational Possibility | Verbal Categories |
| 75A | Other | Other | Other | Other | Epistemic Possibility | Verbal Categories |
| 76A | Overlap for either possibility or necessity | Overlap for both possibility and necessity | Overlap for either possibility or necessity | Overlap for either possibility or necessity | Overlap between Situational and Epistemic Modal Marking | Verbal Categories |
| 77A | Indirect only | Indirect only | Direct and indirect | Indirect only | Semantic Distinctions of Evidentiality | Verbal Categories |
| 78A | Verbal affix or clitic | Separate particle | Verbal affix or clitic | Verbal affix or clitic | Coding of Evidentiality | Verbal Categories |
| 79B | None (= no suppletive imperatives reported in the reference material) | None (= no suppletive imperatives reported in the reference material) | None (= no suppletive imperatives reported in the reference material) | None (= no suppletive imperatives reported in the reference material) | Suppletion in Imperatives and Hortatives | Verbal Categories |
| 79A | None | None | None | None | Suppletion According to Tense and Aspect | Verbal Categories |
| 80A | None | None | Singular-plural pairs, suppletion | None | Verbal Number and Suppletion | Verbal Categories |
| 81A | SOV | VSO | SOV | SOV | Order of Subject, Object and Verb | Word Order |
| 82A | SV | VS | SV | SV | Order of Subject and Verb | Word Order |
| 83A | OV | VO | OV | OV | Order of Object and Verb | Word Order |
| 84A | XOV | #N/A | #N/A | Order of Object, Oblique, and Verb | Word Order | |
| 85A | Postpositions | #N/A | Postpositions | Postpositions | Order of Adposition and Noun Phrase | Word Order |
| 86A | Genitive-Noun | Noun-Genitive | Genitive-Noun | Genitive-Noun | Order of Genitive and Noun | Word Order |
| 87A | Adjective-Noun | No dominant order | Adjective-Noun | Adjective-Noun | Order of Adjective and Noun | Word Order |
| 88A | Demonstrative-Noun | Mixed | Demonstrative-Noun | Demonstrative-Noun | Order of Demonstrative and Noun | Word Order |
| 89A | Numeral-Noun | Numeral-Noun | Numeral-Noun | Numeral-Noun | Order of Numeral and Noun | Word Order |
| 90B | Relative clause-Noun (RelN) dominant | #N/A | Relative clause-Noun (RelN) dominant | Relative clause-Noun (RelN) dominant | Prenominal relative clauses | Word Order |
| 90A | Relative clause-Noun | Noun-Relative clause | Relative clause-Noun | Relative clause-Noun | Order of Relative Clause and Noun | Word Order |
| 90C | #N/A | Noun-Relative clause (NRel) dominant | #N/A | Postnominal relative clauses | Word Order | |
| 90D | Internally-headed occurs as nondominant type | Internally-headed occurs as nondominant type | #N/A | Internally-headed occurs as nondominant type | Internally-headed relative clauses | Word Order |
| 91A | Degree word-Adjective | #N/A | #N/A | Order of Degree Word and Adjective | Word Order | |
| 92A | Final | Second position | Final | Final | Position of Polar Question Particles | Word Order |
| 93A | Not initial interrogative phrase | Initial interrogative phrase | Not initial interrogative phrase | Not initial interrogative phrase | Position of Interrogative Phrases in Content Questions | Word Order |
| 94A | Final subordinator word | Initial subordinator word | Final subordinator word | Final subordinator word | Order of Adverbial Subordinator and Clause | Word Order |
| 95A | OV and Postpositions | #N/A | OV and Postpositions | OV and Postpositions | Relationship between the Order of Object and Verb and the Order of Adposition and Noun Phrase | Word Order |
| 96A | OV and RelN | VO and NRel | OV and RelN | OV and RelN | Relationship between the Order of Object and Verb and the Order of Relative Clause and Noun | Word Order |
| 97A | OV and AdjN | Other | OV and AdjN | OV and AdjN | Relationship between the Order of Object and Verb and the Order of Adjective and Noun | Word Order |
| 98A | Nominative - accusative (standard) | Neutral | Neutral | Neutral | Alignment of Case Marking of Full Noun Phrases | Simple Clauses |
| 99A | Nominative - accusative (standard) | Neutral | Neutral | Neutral | Alignment of Case Marking of Pronouns | Simple Clauses |
| 100A | Neutral | Neutral | Split | Neutral | Alignment of Verbal Person Marking | Simple Clauses |
| 101A | Optional pronouns in subject position | #N/A | Subject affixes on verb | Expression of Pronominal Subjects | Simple Clauses | |
| 102A | No person marking | No person marking | Both the A and P arguments | No person marking | Verbal Person Marking | Simple Clauses |
| 103A | No person marking | No person marking | Zero in all 3rd person forms | No person marking | Third Person Zero of Verbal Person Marking | Simple Clauses |
| 104A | A and P do not or do not both occur on the verb | A and P do not or do not both occur on the verb | A precedes P | A and P do not or do not both occur on the verb | Order of Person Markers on the Verb | Simple Clauses |
| 105A | Indirect-object construction | Mixed | Secondary-object construction | Ditransitive Constructions: The Verb 'Give' | Simple Clauses | |
| 106A | Distinct from reflexive | Distinct from reflexive | Distinct from reflexive | Distinct from reflexive | Reciprocal Constructions | Simple Clauses |
| 107A | Present | Absent | Present | Present | Passive Constructions | Simple Clauses |
| 108B | no antipassive | no antipassive | no antipassive | no antipassive | Productivity of the Antipassive Construction | Simple Clauses |
| 108A | No antipassive | No antipassive | No antipassive | No antipassive | Antipassive Constructions | Simple Clauses |
| 109A | No applicative construction | Benefactive and other; both bases | Benefactive and other; both bases | Benefactive and other; both bases | Applicative Constructions | Simple Clauses |
| 109B | No applicative construction | Instrument and locative | Instrument and locative | Instrument and locative | Other Roles of Applied Objects | Simple Clauses |
| 110A | #N/A | Purposive but no sequential | #N/A | Periphrastic Causative Constructions | Simple Clauses | |
| 111A | Morphological but no compound | Morphological but no compound | Morphological but no compound | Morphological but no compound | Nonperiphrastic Causative Constructions | Simple Clauses |
| 112A | Negative affix | Negative particle | Negative particle | Negative particle | Negative Morphemes | Simple Clauses |
| 113A | Asymmetric | Symmetric | Symmetric | Symmetric | Symmetric and Asymmetric Standard Negation | Simple Clauses |
| 114A | A/Fin and A/Cat | Non-assignable | Non-assignable | Non-assignable | Subtypes of Asymmetric Standard Negation | Simple Clauses |
| 115A | Predicate negation also present | Predicate negation also present | Predicate negation also present | Predicate negation also present | Negative Indefinite Pronouns and Predicate Negation | Simple Clauses |
| 116A | Question particle | Question particle | Question particle | Question particle | Polar Questions | Simple Clauses |
| 117A | Locational | Topic | 'Have' | Predicative Possession | Simple Clauses | |
| 118A | Mixed | Verbal encoding | Verbal encoding | Verbal encoding | Predicative Adjectives | Simple Clauses |
| 119A | Different | Different | Different | Different | Nominal and Locational Predication | Simple Clauses |
| 120A | Impossible | Impossible | Impossible | Impossible | Zero Copula for Predicate Nominals | Simple Clauses |
| 121A | Locational | #N/A | #N/A | Comparative Constructions | Simple Clauses | |
| 122A | Gap | Gap | #N/A | Relativization on Subjects | Complex Sentences | |
| 123A | Gap | Not possible | #N/A | Relativization on Obliques | Complex Sentences | |
| 124A | Desiderative verbal affix | Subject is left implicit | Subject is left implicit | Subject is left implicit | 'Want' Complement Subjects | Complex Sentences |
| 125A | Balanced/deranked | Deranked | Balanced | Balanced/deranked | Purpose Clauses | Complex Sentences |
| 126A | Balanced/deranked | Balanced/deranked | Balanced | Balanced/deranked | 'When' Clauses | Complex Sentences |
| 127A | Balanced | Balanced/deranked | Balanced | Balanced | Reason Clauses | Complex Sentences |
| 128A | Balanced | Balanced | Balanced | Balanced | Utterance Complement Clauses | Complex Sentences |
| 129A | Identical | Different | Identical | Identical | Hand and Arm | Lexicon |
| 130A | Different | Different | #N/A | Different | Finger and Hand | Lexicon |
| 131A | Decimal | Decimal | Pure vigesimal | Decimal | Numeral Bases | Lexicon |
| 132A | 6 | #N/A | #N/A | Number of Non-Derived Basic Colour Categories | Lexicon | |
| 133A | 11 | #N/A | #N/A | Number of Basic Colour Categories | Lexicon | |
| 134A | Green vs. blue | #N/A | #N/A | Green and Blue | Lexicon | |
| 135A | Red vs. yellow | #N/A | #N/A | Red and Yellow | Lexicon | |
| 136A | No M-T pronouns | No M-T pronouns | No M-T pronouns | No M-T pronouns | M-T Pronouns | Lexicon |
| 136B | No m in first person singular | No m in first person singular | No m in first person singular | No m in first person singular | M in First Person Singular | Lexicon |
| 137A | No N-M pronouns | No N-M pronouns | No N-M pronouns | No N-M pronouns | N-M Pronouns | Lexicon |
| 137B | m in second person singular | m in second person singular | No m in second person singular | m in second person singular | M in Second Person Singular | Lexicon |
| 138A | Words derived from Sinitic cha | Words derived from Sinitic cha | #N/A | Words derived from Sinitic cha | Tea | Lexicon |
| 142A | Affective meanings | Other or none | #N/A | Para-Linguistic Usages of Clicks | Other | |
| 143A | [V-Neg] | NegV | NegV | NegV | Order of Negative Morpheme and Verb | Word Order |
| 143E | None | NegV | NegV | NegV | Preverbal Negative Morphemes | Word Order |
| 143F | [V-Neg] | None | None | None | Postverbal Negative Morphemes | Word Order |
| 143G | None | None | None | None | Minor morphological means of signaling negation | Word Order |
| 144A | MorphNeg | NegVSO | SONegV | Position of Negative Word With Respect to Subject, Object, and Verb | Word Order | |
| 144B | #N/A | Immed preverbal | Immed preverbal | Immed preverbal | Position of negative words relative to beginning and end of clause and with respect to adjacency to verb | Word Order |
| 144L | SO[V-Neg] | #N/A | SONegV | The Position of Negative Morphemes in SOV Languages | Word Order | |
| 144P | No NegSOV | #N/A | No NegSOV | No NegSOV | NegSOV Order | Word Order |
| 144Q | No SNegOV | #N/A | No SNegOV | No SNegOV | SNegOV Order | Word Order |
| 144R | No SONegV | #N/A | Word&NoDoubleNeg | SONegV Order | Word Order | |
| 144S | Suffix&NoDoubleNeg | #N/A | NoSOVNeg | SOVNeg Order | Word Order | |
| 144T | #N/A | NegVSO | #N/A | The Position of Negative Morphemes in Verb-Initial Languages | Word Order | |
| 144V | #N/A | Separate word, no double negation Word&NoDoubleNeg | #N/A | Verb-Initial with Preverbal Negative | Word Order | |
| 144W | #N/A | None | #N/A | Verb-Initial with Negative that is Immediately Postverbal or between Subject and Object | Word Order | |
| 144X | #N/A | No clause-final neg | #N/A | Verb-Initial with Clause-Final Negative | Word Order |
Phonology
別の方法で作るので全部無視
Morphology
全体的な形態論の特徴についてあげてる項
Fusion of Selected Inflectional Formatives
融合性(fusion)についてWALSでは
- 孤立的(isolating): 形式素(formatives)が音韻的に完全に自由な形態素
- 連鎖的(concatenative): formativesが音韻的に拘束形態素になってる
- 非線状的(nonlinear): formativesがそもそも線状に並んでいない
- 母音交代(ablaut)で文法的な意味を表す
- 声調変化(tonal)で文法的な意味を表す
の3項をまず考えて、isolating > concatenative > nonlinearというグラデーションにしている。
今回の参照言語では2つがExclusively concatenative
Exponence of Selected Inflectional Formatives
formativesの具現性(exponence)
- 単具現的(monoexponential): 一つのformativesが表すものは一つの文法カテゴリー的意味だけ
- 複具現的(Polyexponential): 一つのformativesが表すものが複数の文法カテゴリー的意味
Case exponence
格の具現性については以下の5つが立てられてる
- 格について単具現的
- 格について複具現的
- 格と数
- 格と証拠性
- 格とTAM(時制-相-法)
- 格はない
今回は日本語が格だけ、タガログ語が格と証拠性なので「格と証拠性」を採る
Tense-aspect-mood (TAM) exponence
TAMの具現性については以下の6つが立てられてる
- TAMについて単具現的
- TAMについて複具現的
- TAMと数などについての一致
- TAMと一致と態
- TAMと一致と構造(等位なのか従属なのか)
- TAMと極性
- TAMはない
今回はTAMだけ
Inflectional Synthesis of the Verb
総合性(synthesis)については、動詞が活用する中でどのくらいの数のカテゴリーが活用に関わってくるかで分けている。英語なら人称(三単現で-s)と時制(過去で-ed)の2つなのでcpw(カテゴリー毎単語)は2
今回は日本語とアイヌ語が4-5 cpw、タガログ語が2-3 cpwなのでいったん4-5 cpwにする
まあ参照言語でのカテゴリー全部拾ったらここでの数とは合わなさそうな気がするんだけど……
Locus of Marking in the Clause
節において一致を示す文法的標示が現れる座(locus)が主要部(節においては動詞)と従属部(節においては項)のどちらに現れるか。
項と言っても主語と目的語で振る舞いが違う言語があり、その場合は目的語について着目する。代名詞と名詞で異なる場合は名詞について着目する。
- 主要部標示
- 従属部標示
- 二重標示
- 標示なし
- その他
今回は日本語が従属部標示、タガログ語が二重標示、アイヌ語が標示なしなので従属部標示。つまり動詞は人称変化せず主語と目的語に格標示があるだけということです。
Locus of Marking in Possessive Noun Phrases
所有を表す名詞句におけるlocusを見る。ここでは被所有物が主要部で所有者が従属部
- 主要部標示
- 従属部標示
- 二重標示
- 標示なし
- その他
今回は日本語が従属部標示、アイヌ語が主要部標示、タガログ語は「その他」という扱いなので……二重標示で。
つまり所有の時は所有者も属格で表されるし被所有物にも所有接辞が付く。
Locus of Marking: Whole-language Typology
言語全体で主要部標示か従属部標示かというやつ。前二つがわかってればそれで良さそうなのでパス
Prefixing vs. Suffixing in Inflectional Morphology
全体的に、語の屈折が接頭辞で行われるか接尾辞で行われるかの傾向
今回は日本語が強力に接尾辞の傾向、タガログ語が接辞を使わない、アイヌ語が接尾辞と接頭辞が同程度なので接尾辞の方で。
名詞の格(51A)とか数(33A)とか動詞の否定(112A)とか、各論は別のところで
Reduplication
畳語の作り方
- 単位の全体を反復するか一部を反復するかを使い分ける
- 単位の全体を反復するもののみ
- 畳語を作らない
今回は日本語とアイヌ語が完全畳語のみ、タガログ語は使い分けタイプなので完全畳語のみ。
Case Syncretism
名詞の格変化の中に、語形融合がみられるかどうか
- 格変化がない
- 主要な格についてのみ融合がみられる
- 主要な格でもそれ以外でも融合がみられる
- 格変化で融合がみられない
今回は……参照言語は三つとも格変化しません。格助詞だもんな。
Syncretism in Verbal Person/Number Marking
動詞の人称変化の中に、語形融合がみられるかどうか
- 人称変化がない
- 人称変化で融合がみられる
- 人称変化で融合がみられない
今回は日本語とタガログ語は人称変化がない、アイヌ語は人称変化で融合がみられない。人称変化なし。
Nominal Categories
名詞類の形態論についての項目群
Number of Genders
文法性。バントゥー語の名詞カテゴリーも入れてるので選択肢が
- なし
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5以上
となる。
今回は日本語とアイヌ語に名詞性がないので「なし」。
Sex-based and Non-sex-based Gender Systems
30で名詞性なしって言ったんだからなし。
Systems of Gender Assignment
30で名詞性なしって言ったんだからなし。
Coding of Nominal Plurality
複数形の作り方
- 複数接頭辞
- 複数接尾辞
- 複数語幹変化
- 複数声調変化
- 複数を畳語で表す
- いろいろな方法で表す
- 複数を表す単語が来る
- 複数を表す助詞が来る
- 複数形がない
今回は日本語とアイヌ語で接尾辞なので接尾辞。タガログ語ではmgaという複数を表すマーカーがぽつんと置かれる。
Occurrence of Nominal Plurality
複数形を作る条件と頻度。
- 複数形がない
- 人間を表す名詞にのみ複数形があり、任意
- 人間を表す名詞にのみ複数形があり、必須
- 全ての名詞に複数形があり、いつも任意
- 全ての名詞に複数形があり、非生物を表す名詞については任意
- 全ての名詞に複数形があり、いつも必須
今回は日本語が「人間を表す名詞にのみ複数形があり、任意」、タガログ語とアイヌ語が「全ての名詞に複数形があり、いつも任意」なので、後者になる。
Plurality in Independent Personal Pronouns
人称代名詞の複数の作り方、主格の独立した代名詞で分けている。
- 主格の独立した代名詞がない
- 数による変化がない
- 人称と数という複数カテゴリーを同時に表す接辞が非人称代名詞に付く
- 人称と数という複数カテゴリーを同時に表す代名詞語幹
- 人称と数という複数カテゴリーを同時に表す代名詞語幹に代名詞特有の複数接辞が付く
- 人称と数という複数カテゴリーを同時に表す代名詞語幹に名詞と共有の複数接辞が付く
- 人称を表す代名詞語幹に代名詞特有の複数接辞が付く
- 人称を表す代名詞語幹に名詞と共有の複数接辞が付く
今回は、日本語は「人称を表す代名詞語幹に名詞と共有の複数接辞が付く」、タガログ語は「人称と数という複数カテゴリーを同時に表す代名詞語幹」、アイヌ語は「人称と数という複数カテゴリーを同時に表す接辞が非人称代名詞に付く」
二値の素性の組み合わせで表現しようとすると[語幹が人称を表す/表さない][語幹が数を表す/表さない][接辞が人称を表す/表さない][接辞が数を表す/表さない][接辞が代名詞特有/名詞と共通]で、
- 日本語: +--+-
- タガログ語: ++000
- アイヌ語: -++++(人称接辞 + コピュラの単数/複数という構造)
となり、平均をとるなら++0+0つまり「人称と数という複数カテゴリーを同時に表す代名詞語幹になんかよくわからん複数接辞が付く」……うーんキモい……
これは語彙の方で処理して「人称と数という複数カテゴリーを同時に表す代名詞語幹」に落ち着く可能性が高い
The Associative Plural
同じ性質を持つものの集合を表す累加の複数(additive plural)と、特定の人物とその関連者を表す結合の複数(associative plural)の違い
- 累加の複数と結合の複数のマーカーが同じ
- 結合の複数特有の接辞がある
- 結合の複数特有の、接辞ではない単語や助詞がある
- 結合の複数がない
今回は、日本語とアイヌ語が「累加の複数と結合の複数のマーカーが同じ」、タガログ語は「結合の複数特有の、接辞ではない単語や助詞がある」なので「累加の複数と結合の複数のマーカーが同じ」を採用
Definite Articles
参照言語のいずれにも冠詞はない
Indefinite Articles
参照言語のいずれにも冠詞はない
Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction in Independent Pronouns
一人称複数形代名詞の、包括形と除外形の区別があるかないか
今回は日本語は「一人称複数形代名詞に包括形と除外形の区別がない」、タガログ語とアイヌ語は「一人称複数形代名詞に包括形と除外形の区別がある」なので「一人称複数形代名詞に包括形と除外形の区別がある」を採用
Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction in Verbal Inflection
動詞の一人称複数形に、包括形と除外形の区別があるかないか
今回は29Aで動詞が屈折しないって言ってる
Distance Contrasts in Demonstratives
指示代名詞の遠近が区別されるかどうか
- 区別がない
- 2段階
- 3段階
- 4段階
- 5段階以上
今回は日本語とタガログ語が3段階、アイヌ語が2段階なので3段階を採用
これ/それ/あれ
Pronominal and Adnominal Demonstratives
指示代名詞と指示形容詞の違い
- 同じ
- 語幹が違う
- 語幹は同じで屈折形式が違う
今回は日本語が「語幹は同じで屈折形式が違う」、タガログ語が「同じ」、アイヌ語が「語幹が違う」なので、ううーん
「語幹は同じで屈折形式が違う」でいいか…